Elements by Visual Capitalist

The Critical Minerals to China, EU, and U.S. National Security

Technology Metals

The Critical Minerals to China, EU, and U.S. National Security

Published

1 year ago

on

November 30, 2023

By

Bruno Venditti

Graphics/Design:

Zack Aboulazm

Share

Email

The Critical Minerals to China, EU, and U.S. National Security

The Critical Minerals to China, EU, and U.S. Security

Governments formulate lists of critical minerals according to their industrial requirements and strategic evaluations of supply risks.

Over the last decade, minerals like nickel, copper, and lithium have been on these lists and deemed essential for clean technologies like EV batteries and solar and wind power.

This graphic uses IRENA and the U.S. Department of Energy data to identify which minerals are essential to China, the United States, and the European Union.

What are Critical Minerals?

There is no universally accepted definition of critical minerals. Countries and regions maintain lists that mirror current technology requirements and supply and demand dynamics, among other factors.

These lists are also constantly changing. For example, the EU’s first critical minerals list in 2011 featured only 14 raw materials. In contrast, the 2023 version identified 34 raw materials as critical.

One thing countries share, however, is the concern that a lack of minerals could slow down the energy transition.

The Critical Minerals to China, EU, and U.S. Security

With most countries committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the total mineral demand from clean energy technologies is expected to double by 2040.

U.S. and EU Seek to Reduce Import Reliance on Critical Minerals

Ten materials feature on critical material lists of both the U.S., the EU, and China, including cobalt, lithium, graphite, and rare earths.

Mineral / Considered Critical	🇺🇸 U.S.	🇪🇺 EU	🇨🇳 China
Aluminum/ bauxite	Yes	Yes	Yes
Antimony	Yes	Yes	Yes
Cobalt	Yes	Yes	Yes
Copper	Yes	Yes	Yes
Fluorspar	Yes	Yes	Yes
Graphite	Yes	Yes	Yes
Lithium	Yes	Yes	Yes
Nickel	Yes	Yes	Yes
Rare earths	Yes	Yes	Yes
Tungsten	Yes	Yes	Yes
Arsenic	Yes	Yes	No
Barite	Yes	Yes	No
Beryllium	Yes	Yes	No
Bismuth	Yes	Yes	No
Germanium	Yes	Yes	No
Hafnium	Yes	Yes	No
Magnesium	Yes	Yes	No
Manganese	Yes	Yes	No
Niobium	Yes	Yes	No
Platinum	Yes	Yes	No
Tantalum	Yes	Yes	No
Titanium	Yes	Yes	No
Vanadium	Yes	Yes	No
Tin	Yes	No	Yes
Zirconium	Yes	No	Yes
Phosphorus	No	Yes	Yes
Cesium	Yes	No	No
Chromium	Yes	No	No
Indium	Yes	No	No
Rubidium	Yes	No	No
Samarium	Yes	No	No
Tellurium	Yes	No	No
Zinc	Yes	No	No
Boron	No	Yes	No
Coking Coal	No	Yes	No
Feldspar	No	Yes	No
Gallium	No	Yes	No
Helium	No	Yes	No
Phosphate Rock	No	Yes	No
Scandium	No	Yes	No
Silicon	No	Yes	No
Strontium	No	Yes	No
Gold	No	No	Yes
Iron ore	No	No	Yes
Molybdenum	No	No	Yes
Potash	No	No	Yes
Uranium	No	No	Yes

Despite having most of the same materials found in the U.S. or China’s list, the European list is the only one to include phosphate rock. The region has limited phosphate resources (only produced in Finland) and largely depends on imports of the material essential for manufacturing fertilizers.

Coking coal is also only on the EU list. The material is used in the manufacture of pig iron and steel. Production is currently dominated by China (58%), followed by Australia (17%), Russia (7%), and the U.S. (7%).

The U.S. has also sought to reduce its reliance on imports. Today, the country is 100% import-dependent on manganese and graphite and 76% on cobalt.

After decades of sourcing materials from other countries, the U.S. local production of raw materials has become extremely limited. For instance, there is only one operating nickel mine (primary) in the country, the Eagle Mine in Michigan. Likewise, the country only hosts one lithium source in Nevada, the Silver Peak Mine.

China’s Dominance

Despite being the world’s biggest carbon polluter, China is the largest producer of most of the world’s critical minerals for the green revolution.

China produces 60% of all rare earth elements used as components in high-technology devices, including smartphones and computers. The country also has a 13% share of the lithium production market. In addition, it refines around 35% of the world’s nickel, 58% of lithium, and 70% of cobalt.

Among some of the unique materials on China’s list is gold. Although gold is used on a smaller scale in technology, China has sought gold for economic and geopolitical factors, mainly to diversify its foreign exchange reserves, which rely heavily on the U.S. dollar.

Analysts estimate China has bought a record 400 tonnes of gold in recent years.

China has also slated uranium as a critical mineral. The Chinese government has stated it intends to become self-sufficient in nuclear power plant capacity and fuel production for those plants.

According to the World Nuclear Association, China aims to produce one-third of its uranium domestically.

Related Topics:coal cobalt commodities copper critical metals critical minerals EV evs featured gold lithium minerals nickel uranium

Up Next

China Dominates the Supply of U.S. Critical Minerals List

Don't Miss

Charted: America’s Import Reliance of Critical Minerals

Click for Comments

Technology Metals

Charted: Where the U.S. Gets Its Rare Earths From

China accounts for 70% of U.S. rare earth imports.

Published

2 weeks ago

on

May 1, 2025

By

Bruno Venditti

Between 2020 and 2023, China accounted for 70% of U.S. rare earth imports. This chart shows where the U.S. gets its rare earths from.

Charted: Where the U.S. Gets Its Rare Earths From

This was originally posted on our Voronoi app. Download the app for free on iOS or Android and discover incredible data-driven charts from a variety of trusted sources.

China dominates the global supply of rare earth elements (REEs)—a group of 17 minerals vital to everything from smartphones and electric vehicles to guided missiles and satellites.

Between 2020 and 2023, China accounted for 70% of U.S. rare earth imports, making it by far the country’s top supplier. Malaysia, Japan, and Estonia round out the top four.

Country	Share of U.S. Imports
🇨🇳 China	70%
🇲🇾 Malaysia	13%
🇯🇵 Japan	6%
🇪🇪 Estonia	5%
🌐 Others	6%

This chart breaks down America’s rare earth import sources. The data comes from the U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, as of January 2025, and Statista.

China’s Grip on Rare Earths

Despite their name, rare earths are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust. The challenge lies in finding them in high enough concentrations—and processing them economically and sustainably.

China produces around 90% of the world’s refined rare earths and is home to the largest capacity for separation and purification, giving it a chokehold on global supply chains.

Take yttrium, for example—used in radar systems, lasers, and television screens. Between 2020 and 2023, 93% of all yttrium compounds imported into the U.S. came from China.

Other critical rare earths affected by this supply concentration include:

Samarium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Lutetium
Scandium

Many of these elements are essential in military applications, electric motors, and next-gen electronics. Companies like Lockheed Martin, Tesla, and Apple rely on these materials in their core products.

Tariffs, Tensions, and Export Controls

As part of its response to Donald Trump’s new tariffs on Chinese goods, China recently expanded export restrictions on seven rare earth elements, temporarily suspending overseas shipments of the minerals.

The U.S. currently has only one rare earth mine: the Mountain Pass mine in California. While it’s one of the richest rare earth deposits globally, nearly all of the ore extracted there is still shipped to China for final processing.

To diversify away from Chinese dependence, the U.S. has been actively seeking new supply partnerships. One potential opportunity is in Ukraine, which holds Europe’s largest recoverable rare earth reserves. Currently, the Trump administration is working to close a deal to secure access to these untapped resources.

Learn More on the Voronoi App

If you enjoyed this graphic, be sure to check out this chart illustrating the GDP impact of Trump’s tariffs on China.

Misc

Charted: The End-of-Life Recycling Rates of Select Metals

End-of-life recycling rates measure the percentage of a material that is recovered at the end of its useful life, rather than being disposed of or incinerated.

Published

4 weeks ago

on

April 13, 2025

By

Pallavi Rao

A chart ranking the end-of-life recycling rates (EOL-RR) of commonly used metals in the economy, per 2021 data from the International Energy Agency.

Charted: The End-of-Life Recycling Rates of Select Metals

This was originally posted on our Voronoi app. Download the app for free on Apple or Android and discover incredible data-driven charts from a variety of trusted sources.

We visualize the end-of-life recycling rates (EOL-RR) of commonly used metals in the economy. Data is sourced from the International Energy Agency, last updated in 2021.

ℹ️ EOL-RR is the percentage of a material or product that is recycled or recovered at the end of its useful life, rather than being disposed of in landfills or incinerated.

Tracking recycling rates helps manage resources better and make smarter policies, guiding efforts to cut down on waste.

Ranked: The End of Life Recycling Rates of Select Metals

Gold has an 86% recycling rate according to the latest available data. Per the Boston Consulting Group, one-third of total gold supply was met through recycling between 1995–2014.

Metal	End-of-life recycling rate (2021)	🔍 Used In
Gold	86%	💍 Jewelry / Electronics
Platinum/Palladium	60%	🔬 Optical fibers / Dental fillings
Nickel	60%	🔋 Batteries / Turbine blades
Silver	50%	💍 Jewelry / Mirrors
Copper	46%	🔌 Electrical wiring / Industrial equipment
Aluminum	42%	✈️ Aeroplane parts / Cans
Chromium	34%	🍽️ Stainless steel / Leather tanning
Zinc	33%	🔗 Galvanizing metal / Making rubber
Cobalt	32%	🔋 Batteries / Turbine engines
Lithium	0.5%	🔋 Batteries / Pacemakers
REEs	0.2%	📱 Mobile phones / Hard drives

Note: Figures are rounded.

Several factors can influence metal recycling rates. According to this International Resource Panel report, metals that are used in large quantities (steel) or have a high value (gold) tend to have higher recycling rates.

However, for materials used in small quantities in complex products (rare earth elements in electronics), recycling becomes far more challenging.

Finally, a metal’s EOL-RR is strongly influenced by the least efficient link in the recycling chain, which is typically how it’s initially collected.

Learn More on the Voronoi App

If you enjoyed this post, check out Critical Materials: Where China, the EU, and the U.S. Overlap which shows how critical materials are classified within different jurisdictions.