Misc
Visualizing the Abundance of Elements in the Earth’s Crust
Visualizing the Abundance of Elements in the Earth’s Crust
Elements in the Earth’s crust provide all the basic building blocks for mankind.
But even though the crust is the source of everything we find, mine, refine, and build, it really is just scratching the surface of our planet.
After all, the innermost layer of the Earth, the core, represents 15% of the planet’s volume, whereas the mantle occupies 84%. Representing the remaining 1% is the crust, a thin layer that ranges in depth from approximately 5-70 km (~3-44 miles).
This infographic takes a look at what elements make up this 1%, based on data from WorldAtlas.
Earth’s Crust Elements
The crust is a rigid surface containing both the oceans and landmasses. Most elements are found in only trace amounts within the Earth’s crust, but several are abundant.
The Earth’s crust comprises about 95% igneous and metamorphic rocks, 4% shale, 0.75% sandstone, and 0.25% limestone.
Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, and iron account for 88.1% of the mass of the Earth’s crust, while another 90 elements make up the remaining 11.9%.
Rank | Element | % of Earth's Crust |
---|---|---|
1 | Oxygen (O) | 46.1% |
2 | Silicon (Si) | 28.2% |
3 | Aluminum (Al) | 8.2% |
4 | Iron (Fe) | 5.6% |
5 | Calcium (Ca) | 4.1% |
6 | Sodium (Na) | 2.3% |
7 | Magnesium (Mg) | 2.3% |
8 | Potassium (K) | 2.0% |
9 | Titanium (Ti) | 0.5% |
10 | Hydrogen (H) | 0.1% |
Other elements | 0.5% | |
Total | 100.0% |
While gold, silver, copper and other base and precious metals are among the most sought after elements, together they make up less than 0.03% of the Earth’s crust by mass.
#1: Oxygen
Oxygen is by far the most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, making up 46% of mass—coming up just short of half of the total.
Oxygen is a highly reactive element that combines with other elements, forming oxides. Some examples of common oxides are minerals such as granite and quartz (oxides of silicon), rust (oxides of iron), and limestone (oxide of calcium and carbon).
#2: Silicon
More than 90% of the Earth’s crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earth’s crust.
Silicon links up with oxygen to form the most common minerals on Earth. For example, in most places, sand primarily consists of silica (silicon dioxide) usually in the form of quartz. Silicon is an essential semiconductor, used in manufacturing electronics and computer chips.
#3: Aluminum
Aluminum is the third most common element in the Earth’s crust.
Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminum is rarely found in its elemental state. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)3) and potassium aluminum sulphate (KAl(SO4)2) are common aluminum compounds.
Aluminum and aluminum alloys have a variety of uses, from kitchen foil to rocket manufacturing.
#4: Iron
The fourth most common element in the Earth’s crust is iron, accounting for over 5% of the mass of the Earth’s crust.
Iron is obtained chiefly from the minerals hematite and magnetite. Of all the metals we mine, over 90% is iron, mainly to make steel, an alloy of carbon and iron. Iron is also an essential nutrient in the human body.
#5: Calcium
Calcium makes up about 4.2% of the planet’s crust by weight.
In its pure elemental state, calcium is a soft, silvery-white alkaline earth metal. It is never found in its isolated state in nature but exists instead in compounds. Calcium compounds can be found in a variety of minerals, including limestone (calcium carbonate), gypsum (calcium sulphate) and fluorite (calcium fluoride).
Calcium compounds are widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries for supplementation. They are also used as bleaches in the paper industry, as components in cement and electrical insulators, and in manufacturing soaps.
Digging the Earth’s Crust
Despite Jules Verne’s novel, no one has ever journeyed to the center of Earth.
In fact, the deepest hole ever dug by humanity reaches approximately 12 km (7.5 miles) below the Earth’s surface, about one-third of the way to the Earth’s mantle. This incredible depth took about 20 years to reach.
Although mankind is constantly making new discoveries and reaching for the stars, there is still a lot to explore about the Earth we stand on.
Misc
Charted: The End-of-Life Recycling Rates of Select Metals
End-of-life recycling rates measure the percentage of a material that is recovered at the end of its useful life, rather than being disposed of or incinerated.

Charted: The End-of-Life Recycling Rates of Select Metals
This was originally posted on our Voronoi app. Download the app for free on Apple or Android and discover incredible data-driven charts from a variety of trusted sources.
We visualize the end-of-life recycling rates (EOL-RR) of commonly used metals in the economy. Data is sourced from the International Energy Agency, last updated in 2021.
Tracking recycling rates helps manage resources better and make smarter policies, guiding efforts to cut down on waste.
Ranked: The End of Life Recycling Rates of Select Metals
Gold has an 86% recycling rate according to the latest available data. Per the Boston Consulting Group, one-third of total gold supply was met through recycling between 1995–2014.
Metal | End-of-life recycling rate (2021) | 🔍 Used In |
---|---|---|
Gold | 86% | 💍 Jewelry / Electronics |
Platinum/Palladium | 60% | 🔬 Optical fibers / Dental fillings |
Nickel | 60% | 🔋 Batteries / Turbine blades |
Silver | 50% | 💍 Jewelry / Mirrors |
Copper | 46% | 🔌 Electrical wiring / Industrial equipment |
Aluminum | 42% | ✈️ Aeroplane parts / Cans |
Chromium | 34% | 🍽️ Stainless steel / Leather tanning |
Zinc | 33% | 🔗 Galvanizing metal / Making rubber |
Cobalt | 32% | 🔋 Batteries / Turbine engines |
Lithium | 0.5% | 🔋 Batteries / Pacemakers |
REEs | 0.2% | 📱 Mobile phones / Hard drives |
Note: Figures are rounded.
Several factors can influence metal recycling rates. According to this International Resource Panel report, metals that are used in large quantities (steel) or have a high value (gold) tend to have higher recycling rates.
However, for materials used in small quantities in complex products (rare earth elements in electronics), recycling becomes far more challenging.
Finally, a metal’s EOL-RR is strongly influenced by the least efficient link in the recycling chain, which is typically how it’s initially collected.
Learn More on the Voronoi App 
If you enjoyed this post, check out Critical Materials: Where China, the EU, and the U.S. Overlap which shows how critical materials are classified within different jurisdictions.
Misc
Companies with the Most Fossil Fuel and Cement CO2 Emissions
Half of the world’s total fossil fuel and cement carbon dioxide emissions in 2023 came from just 36 companies.

Companies with the Most Fossil Fuel and Cement CO2 Emissions
This was originally posted on our Voronoi app. Download the app for free on iOS or Android and discover incredible data-driven charts from a variety of trusted sources.
Key Takeaways
- Half of the world’s fossil fuel and cement carbon dioxide emissions in 2023 came from just 36 entities, according to a report by the Carbon Majors Project
- If Saudi Aramco were a country, it would be the fourth-largest polluter in the world, after China, the U.S., and India.
- Five publicly traded oil companies—ExxonMobil, Chevron, Shell, TotalEnergies, and BP—together accounted for 5% of global carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels.
Chinese Companies Dominate the List
This graphic is based on Carbon Majors, a database of historical production data from 180 of the world’s largest oil, gas, coal, and cement producers representing 169 active and 11 inactive entities.
In 2023, the top 20 highest carbon-producing entities were responsible for 17.5 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO₂e) in emissions, accounting for 40.8% of global fossil fuel and cement CO₂ emissions. The list is largely dominated by state-owned companies, with 16 of the top 20 being state-controlled. Notably, eight Chinese entities contributed to 17.3% of global fossil fuel and cement CO₂ emissions in 2023.
Entity | Total emissions (MtCO2e) | Global CO2 emissions (%) |
---|---|---|
1 | Saudi Aramco | 4.4% |
2 | Coal India | 3.7% |
3 | CHN Energy | 3.7% |
4 | Jinneng Group | 2.9% |
5 | Cement industry of China | 2.8% |
6 | National Iranian Oil Company | 2.8% |
7 | Gazprom | 2.3% |
8 | Rosneft | 1.9% |
9 | Shandong Energy | 1.7% |
10 | China National Coal Group | 1.7% |
11 | Abu Dhabi National Oil Company | 1.6% |
12 | CNPC | 1.6% |
13 | Shaanxi Coal and Chemical Industry Group | 1.6% |
14 | Iraq National Oil Company | 1.3% |
15 | Shanxi Coking Coal Group | 1.3% |
16 | ExxonMobil | 1.3% |
17 | Sonatrach | 1.2% |
18 | Chevron | 1.1% |
19 | Kuwait Petroleum Corp. | 1.0% |
20 | Petrobras | 1.0% |
21 | Shell | 0.9% |
22 | Pemex | 0.9% |
23 | TotalEnergies | 0.8% |
24 | QatarEnergy | 0.8% |
25 | Lukoil | 0.8% |
26 | BP | 0.8% |
27 | Glencore | 0.7% |
28 | China Huaneng Group | 0.7% |
29 | Luan Chemical Group | 0.7% |
30 | Equinor | 0.7% |
31 | Peabody Energy | 0.7% |
32 | Nigerian National Petroleum Corp. | 0.6% |
33 | CNOOC | 0.6% |
34 | ConocoPhillips | 0.6% |
35 | Eni | 0.6% |
36 | Petronas | 0.5% |
Coal continued to be the largest source of emissions in 2023, representing 41.1% of emissions in the database and continuing a steady upward trend since 2016. Coal emissions grew by 1.9% (258 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent – MtCO₂e) from 2022, while cement saw the largest relative increase at 6.5% (82 MtCO₂e), driven by expanding production.
In contrast, natural gas emissions fell by 3.7% (164 MtCO₂e), and oil emissions remained stable with only a slight increase of 0.3% (73 MtCO₂e).
Learn More on the Voronoi App 
To learn more about this topic, check out this graphic that shows greenhouse gas emissions by sector in 2023, according to data was compiled by the United Nations. The power sector remains the largest emissions contributor.
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