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Visualizing the Life Cycle of a Mineral Discovery

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Visualizing the Life Cycle of a Mineral Discovery

Visualizing the Life Cycle of a Mineral Discovery

Mining legend Pierre Lassonde knows a little bit about mineral exploration, discovery, and development. Drawing from decades of his experience, he created the chart above that has become a staple in the mining industryโ€”the Lassonde Curve.

Today’s chart of the Lassonde Curve outlines the life of mining companies from exploration to production, and highlights the work and market value associated with each stage. This helps speculative investors understand the mining process, and time their investments properly.

Making Cents of Miners: The Stages of a Mineral Discovery

In the life cycle of a mineral deposit, there are seven stages that each offer specific risks and rewards. As a company proves there is a mineable deposit in the ground, more value is created for shareholders along the way.

  1. Concept

    This stage carries the most risk which accounts for its low value. In the beginning, there is little knowledge of what actually lies beneath the Earthโ€™s surface.

    At this stage, geologists are putting to the test a theory about where metal deposits are. They will survey the land using geochemical and sampling techniques to improve the confidence of this theory. Once this is complete, they can move onto more extensive exploration.

  2. Pre-Discovery

    There is still plenty of risk, but this is where speculation hype begins. As the drill bit meets the ground, mineral exploration geologists develop their knowledge of what lies beneath the Earth’s crust to assess mineral potential.

    Mineral exploration involves retrieving a cross-section (drill core) of the crust, and then analyzing it for mineral content. A drill core containing sufficient amounts of metals can encourage further exploration, which may lead to the discovery of a mineable deposit.

  3. Discovery

    Discovery is the reward stage for early speculators. Exploration has revealed that there is a significant amount of material to be mined, and it warrants further study to prove that mining would be feasible. Most speculators exit here, as the next stage creates a new set of risks, such as profitability, construction, and financing.

  4. Feasibility

    This is an important milestone for a mineral discovery. Studies conducted during this stage may demonstrate the depositโ€™s potential to become a profitable mine.

    Institutional and strategic investors can then use these studies to evaluate whether they want to advance this project. Speculators often invest during this time, known as the โ€œOrphan Periodโ€, while uncertainty about the project lingers.

  5. Development

    Development is a rare moment, and most mineral deposits never make it to this stage. At this point, the company puts together a production plan for the mine.

    First, they must secure funding and build an operational team. If a company can secure funding for development, investors can see the potential of revenue from mining. However, risks still persist in the form of construction, budget, and timelines.

  6. Startup/Production

    Investors who have held their investment until this point can pat themselves on the backโ€”this is a rare moment for a mineral discovery. The company is now processing ore and generating revenue.

    Investment analysts will re-rate this deposit, to help it attract more attention from institutional investors and the general public. Meanwhile, existing investors can choose to exit here or wait for potential increases in revenues and dividends.

  7. Depletion

    Nothing lasts forever, especially scarce mineral resources. Unless, there are more deposits nearby, most mines are eventually depleted. With it, so does the value of the company. Investors should be looking for an exit as operations wind down.

Case Study: The Oyu Tolgoi Copper-Gold Discovery, Mongolia

So now that you know the theoretical value cycle of a mineral discovery, how does it pan out in reality? The Oyu Tolgoi copper deposit is one recent discovery that has gone through this value cycle. It exemplifies some of these events and their effects on the share price of a company.

    1. Concept: 15+ Years

      Prospectors conducted early exploration work in the 1980s near where Oyu Tolgoi would be discovered. It was not until 1996 that Australian miner BHP conducted further exploration.

      But after 21 drill holes, the company lost interest and optioned the property to mining entrepreneur Robert Friedland and his company Ivanhoe Mines. At this point in 1999, shares in Ivanhoe were a gamble.

    2. Pre-Discovery/Discovery: ~3 years

      Ivanhoe Mines and BHP entered into an earn-in agreement, in which Ivanhoe gained ownership by completing work to explore Oyu Tolgoi. A year later, the first drill results came out of drill hole 150 with a headline result of 508 meters of 1.1 g/t Au and 0.8%. To get a sense of how large this is, imagine the height a 45-story building, of which a third of story is copper. This was just one intersection of an area that could stretch for miles.

      Wild speculation began at this stage, as steadily improving drill results proved a massive copper-gold deposit in Mongolia and drove up the share price of Ivanhoe.

    3. Feasibility/Orphan Period: ~2 years

      In 2004, the drilling results contributed to the development of the first scoping study. This study offered a preliminary understanding of the projectโ€™s economics.

      Using this study, the company needed to secure enough money to build a mine to extract the valuable ore. It was not until two years later, when Ivanhoe Mines entered into an agreement with major mining company Rio Tinto, that a production decision was finalized.

    4. Development: 7 years

      By 2006, the Oyu Tolgoi mineral deposit was in the development phase with the first shaft headframe, hoisting frame, and associated infrastructure completed. It took another two years for the shaft to reach a depth of 1,385 feet.

      Further development work delineated a resource of 1.2 billion pounds of copper, 650,000 ounces of gold, and 3 million ounces of silver. This first stage of development for Oyu Tolgoi made Mongolia the worldโ€™s fastest growing economy from 2009 to 2011.

    5. Startup/Production: Ongoing

      On January 31, 2013, the company announced it had produced the first copper-gold concentrate from Oyu Tolgoi. Six months later, the company stated that it was processing up to 70,000 tonnes of ore daily.

    6. Depletion: Into the Future

      The Oyu Tolgoi deposit will last generations, so we have yet to see how this will affect the value of the mine from an investment perspective.

      It’s also worth noting there are still other risks ahead. These risks can include labor disruptions, mining method problems, or commodity price movement. Investors will have to consider these additional conditions as they pan out.

The More You Know

Mining is one of the riskiest investments with many risks to consider at every stage.

While most mineral discoveries do not match it perfectly, the Lassonde Curve guides an investor through what to expect at each stage, and empowers them to time their investments right.

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Real Assets

Charted: 30 Years of Central Bank Gold Demand

Globally, central banks bought a record 1,136 tonnes of gold in 2022. How has central bank gold demand changed over the last three decades?

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central bank gold demand

30 Years of Central Bank Gold Demand

Did you know that nearly one-fifth of all the gold ever mined is held by central banks?

Besides investors and jewelry consumers, central banks are a major source of gold demand. In fact, in 2022, central banks snapped up gold at the fastest pace since 1967.

However, the record gold purchases of 2022 are in stark contrast to the 1990s and early 2000s, when central banks were net sellers of gold.

The above infographic uses data from the World Gold Council to show 30 years of central bank gold demand, highlighting how official attitudes toward gold have changed in the last 30 years.

Why Do Central Banks Buy Gold?

Gold plays an important role in the financial reserves of numerous nations. Here are three of the reasons why central banks hold gold:

  • Balancing foreign exchange reserves
    Central banks have long held gold as part of their reserves to manage risk from currency holdings and to promote stability during economic turmoil.
  • Hedging against fiat currencies
    Gold offers a hedge against the eroding purchasing power of currencies (mainly the U.S. dollar) due to inflation.
  • Diversifying portfolios
    Gold has an inverse correlation with the U.S. dollar. When the dollar falls in value, gold prices tend to rise, protecting central banks from volatility.
  • The Switch from Selling to Buying

    In the 1990s and early 2000s, central banks were net sellers of gold.

    There were several reasons behind the selling, including good macroeconomic conditions and a downward trend in gold prices. Due to strong economic growth, goldโ€™s safe-haven properties were less valuable, and low returns made it unattractive as an investment.

    Central bank attitudes toward gold started changing following the 1997 Asian financial crisis and then later, the 2007โ€“08 financial crisis. Since 2010, central banks have been net buyers of gold on an annual basis.

    Hereโ€™s a look at the 10 largest official buyers of gold from the end of 1999 to end of 2021:

    Rank CountryAmount of
    Gold Bought (tonnes)
    % of
    All Buying
    #1๐Ÿ‡ท๐Ÿ‡บ Russia 1,88828%
    #2๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ณ China 1,55223%
    #3๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ท Tรผrkiye 5418%
    #4๐Ÿ‡ฎ๐Ÿ‡ณ India 3956%
    #5๐Ÿ‡ฐ๐Ÿ‡ฟ Kazakhstan 3455%
    #6๐Ÿ‡บ๐Ÿ‡ฟ Uzbekistan 3115%
    #7๐Ÿ‡ธ๐Ÿ‡ฆ Saudi Arabia 1803%
    #8๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ญ Thailand 1682%
    #9๐Ÿ‡ต๐Ÿ‡ฑ Poland1282%
    #10๐Ÿ‡ฒ๐Ÿ‡ฝ Mexico 1152%
    Total5,62384%

    Source: IMF

    The top 10 official buyers of gold between end-1999 and end-2021 represent 84% of all the gold bought by central banks during this period.

    Russia and Chinaโ€”arguably the United Statesโ€™ top geopolitical rivalsโ€”have been the largest gold buyers over the last two decades. Russia, in particular, accelerated its gold purchases after being hit by Western sanctions following its annexation of Crimea in 2014.

    Interestingly, the majority of nations on the above list are emerging economies. These countries have likely been stockpiling gold to hedge against financial and geopolitical risks affecting currencies, primarily the U.S. dollar.

    Meanwhile, European nations including Switzerland, France, Netherlands, and the UK were the largest sellers of gold between 1999 and 2021, under the Central Bank Gold Agreement (CBGA) framework.

    Which Central Banks Bought Gold in 2022?

    In 2022, central banks bought a record 1,136 tonnes of gold, worth around $70 billion.

    Country2022 Gold Purchases (tonnes)% of Total
    ๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ท Tรผrkiye14813%
    ๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ณ China 625%
    ๐Ÿ‡ช๐Ÿ‡ฌ Egypt 474%
    ๐Ÿ‡ถ๐Ÿ‡ฆ Qatar333%
    ๐Ÿ‡ฎ๐Ÿ‡ถ Iraq 343%
    ๐Ÿ‡ฎ๐Ÿ‡ณ India 333%
    ๐Ÿ‡ฆ๐Ÿ‡ช UAE 252%
    ๐Ÿ‡ฐ๐Ÿ‡ฌ Kyrgyzstan 61%
    ๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ฏ Tajikistan 40.4%
    ๐Ÿ‡ช๐Ÿ‡จ Ecuador 30.3%
    ๐ŸŒ Unreported 74165%
    Total1,136100%

    Tรผrkiye, experiencing 86% year-over-year inflation as of October 2022, was the largest buyer, adding 148 tonnes to its reserves. China continued its gold-buying spree with 62 tonnes added in the months of November and December, amid rising geopolitical tensions with the United States.

    Overall, emerging markets continued the trend that started in the 2000s, accounting for the bulk of gold purchases. Meanwhile, a significant two-thirds, or 741 tonnes of official gold purchases were unreported in 2022.

    According to analysts, unreported gold purchases are likely to have come from countries like China and Russia, who are looking to de-dollarize global trade to circumvent Western sanctions.

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Which Countries Have the Lowest Inflation?

Just four economies around the world had inflation below 2% in 2022.

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Which Countries Have the Lowest Inflation?

Investors are bracing for longer inflation.

The Federal Reserve indicated that more restrictive monetary policy is in the cards amid strong employment gains. In Europe, while inflation has fallen, it is still far above the 2% target. Across the Euro area inflation is estimated to have reached 8.5% in January.

At the same time, some countries have managed to tamp down inflation. Slower growth, cheaper import costs, and foreign exchange policy are some of the factors keeping inflation subdued.

As price pressures rattle global markets, the above infographic maps inflation rates globally using data from Trading Economics, focusing in on the countries with the lowest inflation levels.

World’s Lowest Inflation Rates

Many of the lowest inflation rates around the world are located in Asia, including Macau, China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. In this region, widespread lockdowns strained growth and consumer spending, lessening inflationary pressures. Last year, Chinese consumers saved $2.2 trillion in bank deposits during these restrictions which were lifted earlier this year.

Inflation in the region was impacted by several other factors. Earlier on in the pandemic, Asian countries including China were less impacted by rising food costs, services inflation, and supply-chain disruptions, unlike what was seen in North America and Europe.

But now as China has reopened, some signs of inflation are beginning to appear. Food prices are up 4.8% annually in December, and hotel rates are rising.

RankCountry / RegionInflation Rate, Year-Over-YearDate
1๐Ÿ‡ธ๐Ÿ‡ธ South Sudan-11.6%Dec 2022
2๐Ÿ‡ฒ๐Ÿ‡ด Macau 0.8%Nov 2022
3๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ณ China1.8%Dec 2022
4๐Ÿ‡ญ๐Ÿ‡ฐ Hong Kong SAR1.8%Nov 2022
5๐Ÿ‡ด๐Ÿ‡ฒ Oman2.1%Nov 2022
6๐Ÿ‡ต๐Ÿ‡ฆ Panama2.1%Dec 2022
7๐Ÿ‡ธ๐Ÿ‡จ Seychelles2.5%Dec 2022
8๐Ÿ‡ป๐Ÿ‡บ Vanuatu2.7%Mar 2022
9๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ผ Taiwan2.7%Dec 2022
10๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ญ Switzerland2.8%Dec 2022
11๐Ÿ‡ฑ๐Ÿ‡ฎ Liechtenstein2.8%Dec 2022
12๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ฏ Benin2.8%Dec 2022
13๐Ÿ‡ฒ๐Ÿ‡ป Maldives2.8%Nov 2022
14๐Ÿ‡ณ๐Ÿ‡ช Niger3.1%Dec 2022
15๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ณ Brunei3.1%Nov 2022
16๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ด Bolivia3.2%Nov 2022
17๐Ÿ‡ฐ๐Ÿ‡ผ Kuwait3.2%Nov 2022
18๐Ÿ‡ธ๐Ÿ‡ฆ Saudi Arabia3.3%Dec 2022
19๐Ÿ‡ฐ๐Ÿ‡ญ Cambodia3.6%Oct 2022
20๐Ÿ‡ซ๐Ÿ‡ฏ Fiji3.6%Dec 2022
21๐Ÿ‡ช๐Ÿ‡จ Ecuador3.7%Dec 2022
22๐Ÿ‡ฏ๐Ÿ‡ต Japan3.8%Nov 2022
23๐Ÿ‡ฑ๐Ÿ‡พ Libya3.8%Nov 2022
24๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ฒ Bermuda3.8%Oct 2022
25๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ญ Bahrain3.9%Nov 2022
26๐Ÿ‡ฒ๐Ÿ‡พ Malaysia4.0%Nov 2022
27๐Ÿ‡ต๐Ÿ‡ธ Palestine4.1%Dec 2022
28๐Ÿ‡ฎ๐Ÿ‡ถ Iraq4.2%Nov 2022
29๐Ÿ‡ฏ๐Ÿ‡ด Jordan4.4%Dec 2022
30๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ฏ Tajikistan4.5%Nov 2022
31๐Ÿ‡ป๐Ÿ‡ณ Vietnam4.6%Dec 2022
32๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡น Bhutan4.6%Nov 2022
33๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ฟ Tanzania4.8%Dec 2022
34๐Ÿ‡ณ๐Ÿ‡จ New Caledonia4.9%Dec 2022
35๐Ÿ‡ฐ๐Ÿ‡ท South Korea5.0%Dec 2022
36๐Ÿ‡ฎ๐Ÿ‡ฑ Israel5.3%Dec 2022
37๐Ÿ‡ฑ๐Ÿ‡บ Luxembourg5.4%Dec 2022
38๐Ÿ‡ธ๐Ÿ‡ฟ Swaziland5.5%Oct 2022
39๐Ÿ‡ฎ๐Ÿ‡ฉ Indonesia5.5%Dec 2022
40๐Ÿ‡ฌ๐Ÿ‡ฆ Gabon5.7%Oct 2022
41๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ฎ Ivory Coast5.7%Nov 2022
42๐Ÿ‡ช๐Ÿ‡ธ Spain5.7%Dec 2022
43๐Ÿ‡ฎ๐Ÿ‡ณ India5.7%Dec 2022
44๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ท Brazil5.8%Dec 2022
45๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ญ Thailand5.9%Dec 2022
46๐Ÿ‡ซ๐Ÿ‡ท France5.9%Dec 2022
47๐Ÿ‡ณ๐Ÿ‡ด Norway5.9%Dec 2022
48๐Ÿ‡ถ๐Ÿ‡ฆ Qatar5.9%Dec 2022
49๐Ÿ‡ฉ๐Ÿ‡ฏ Djibouti6.1%Sep 2022
50๐Ÿ‡ธ๐Ÿ‡ด Somalia6.1%Dec 2022
51๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡น Trinidad and Tobago6.2%Sep 2022
52๐Ÿ‡ต๐Ÿ‡ฌ Papua New Guinea6.3%Sep 2022
53๐Ÿ‡ต๐Ÿ‡ท Puerto Rico6.3%Nov 2022
54๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ฆ Canada6.3%Dec 2022
55๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ธ Bahamas6.5%Sep/22
56๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ฟ Belize6.5%Nov 2022
57๐Ÿ‡บ๐Ÿ‡ธ U.S.6.5%Dec 2022
58๐Ÿ‡ฆ๐Ÿ‡ผ Aruba6.6%Nov 2022
59๐Ÿ‡ธ๐Ÿ‡ฌ Singapore6.7%Nov 2022
60๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ฑ East Timor6.7%Nov 2022
61๐Ÿ‡ฆ๐Ÿ‡ช UAE6.8%Jun 2022
62๐Ÿ‡ณ๐Ÿ‡ฆ Namibia6.9%Dec 2022
63๐Ÿ‡ฌ๐Ÿ‡พ Guyana6.9%Nov 2022
64๐Ÿ‡ณ๐Ÿ‡ฟ New Zealand7.2%Sep 2022
65๐Ÿ‡ฟ๐Ÿ‡ฆ South Africa7.2%Dec 2022
66๐Ÿ‡ฌ๐Ÿ‡ท Greece7.2%Dec 2022
67๐Ÿ‡ฑ๐Ÿ‡ท Liberia7.2%Sep 2022
68๐Ÿ‡ฆ๐Ÿ‡บ Australia7.3%Sep 2022
69๐Ÿ‡ฒ๐Ÿ‡น Malta7.3%Dec 2022
70๐Ÿ‡ธ๐Ÿ‡ป El Salvador7.3%Dec 2022
71๐Ÿ‡ฆ๐Ÿ‡ฑ Albania7.4%Dec 2022
72๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ป Cape Verde7.6%Dec 2022
73๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ฒ Cameroon7.7%Sep 2022
74๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ซ Central African Republic7.7%Nov 2022
75๐Ÿ‡น๐Ÿ‡ฌ Togo7.7%Dec 2022
76๐Ÿ‡ฒ๐Ÿ‡ฝ Mexico7.8%Dec 2022
77๐Ÿ‡ฉ๐Ÿ‡ด Dominican Republic7.8%Dec 2022
78๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡ท Costa Rica7.9%Dec 2022
79๐Ÿ‡จ๐Ÿ‡พ Cyprus7.9%Dec 2022
80๐Ÿ‡ฒ๐Ÿ‡ฑ Mali8.0%Nov 2022
81๐Ÿ‡ณ๐Ÿ‡ต Nepal8.1%Nov 2022
82๐Ÿ‡ต๐Ÿ‡ญ Philippines8.1%Dec 2022
83๐Ÿ‡ต๐Ÿ‡พ Paraguay8.1%Dec 2022
84๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ง Barbados8.2%Oct 2022
85๐Ÿ‡ฎ๐Ÿ‡ช Ireland8.2%Dec 2022
86๐Ÿ‡บ๐Ÿ‡พ Uruguay8.3%Dec 2022
87๐Ÿ‡ฒ๐Ÿ‡ฆ Morocco8.3%Nov 2022
88๐Ÿ‡ฆ๐Ÿ‡ฒ Armenia8.3%Dec 2022
89๐Ÿ‡ต๐Ÿ‡ช Peru8.5%Dec 2022
90๐Ÿ‡ฑ๐Ÿ‡ธ Lesotho8.5%Oct 2022
91๐Ÿ‡ฉ๐Ÿ‡ฟ Algeria8.6%Nov 2022
92๐Ÿ‡ฉ๐Ÿ‡ช Germany8.6%Dec 2022
93๐Ÿ‡ฉ๐Ÿ‡ฐ Denmark8.7%Dec 2022
94๐Ÿ‡ง๐Ÿ‡ฉ Bangladesh8.7%Dec 2022
95๐Ÿ‡ซ๐Ÿ‡ด Faroe Islands8.8%Sep 2022
96๐Ÿ‡ซ๐Ÿ‡ฎ Finland9.1%Dec 2022
97๐Ÿ‡ฐ๐Ÿ‡ช Kenya9.1%Dec 2022
98๐Ÿ‡ฐ๐Ÿ‡พ Cayman Islands9.2%Sep 2022
99๐Ÿ‡ฌ๐Ÿ‡น Guatemala9.2%Dec 2022
100๐Ÿ‡ฌ๐Ÿ‡ผ Guinea Bissau9.4%Nov 2022

*Inflation rates based on latest available data.

Globally, one outlier is South Sudan. Political instability and violence have depressed growth and inflation, which stood at -11.6% in December. As it faces a severe humanitarian crisis, the country has the lowest inflation rate worldwide.

Oil-producing nation Oman has also seen low inflation, at 2.1%. One reason for this is that the Omani rial is pegged to the U.S. dollar, keeping the currency anchored. Inflation has remained moderate over the last decade in the country.

The Country With the Lowest Inflation, by Region

In Europe, Switzerland has the lowest inflation rate, at 2.8%, or roughly one-third of the Euro area’s. It is also the lowest rate in the OECD. The countryโ€™s strong currency has shielded it from inflationary pressures and high import prices.

Meanwhile, Swiss production prices have risen marginally above inflation, to 4.1% annually in mid-2022. Last year, the Swiss central bank raised interest rates for the first time since 2007 from -0.75% to -0.25% following 20 years of deflation.

Countries With the Lowest Inflation by Region

Panama has the lowest rate in Latin America. The dollarization of the Panamanian balboa has helped quash price pressures. In July, the government regulated the price of 72 items to keep the cost of living from rising after three weeks of protests as inflation climbed as high as 5.2% during the course of 2022.

With the lowest inflation in Asia, Macau witnessed the tourism industry fall off a cliff given lockdown measures, and the economy saw both its GDP and inflation collapse in 2022. Its real GDP is projected to have fallen close to 30% for the year.

Future Gazing

The IMF estimates that 84% of countries around the world will have lower inflation than last year. By 2024, both headline and core inflation are projected to remain above pre-pandemic levels at 4.1%.

Opposing forces of China’s reopening and weaker global growth could offset inflationary pressures, yet this interplayโ€”among a host of other factorsโ€”remains to be seen.

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