Technology Metals
Rare Earth Metals Production is No Longer Monopolized by China
Rare Earth Elements: The Technology Metals
In the midst of our daily hustle and bustle, we often don’t notice the raw materials that go into the technologies we rely on.
Rare earth metals, also known as rare earth elements or simply “rare earths”, are one such group of raw materials. From this group of 17 minerals, many are found in a range of technologies—from our smartphones and laptops to electric vehicles and wind turbines.
Rare Earth Metals Production Over the Years
Despite the relative abundance of rare earth deposits, extracting them from the ground is difficult, and preparing them for usage entails significant environmental risks.
The U.S. was the world’s leading producer of rare earth metals from the 1960s to the 1980s. However, China took the helm in the 1990s and has been the dominant producer ever since.
| Year | U.S. Production (metric tons) | China’s Production (metric tons) | ROW Production (metric tons) | U.S. % Share | China’s % Share |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1985 | 13,428 | 8,500 | 17,757 | 34% | 21% |
| 1990 | 22,713 | 16,480 | 20,917 | 38% | 27% |
| 1995 | 22,200 | 48,000 | 9,700 | 28% | 60% |
| 2000 | 5,000 | 73,000 | 5,500 | 6% | 87% |
| 2005 | 0 | 119,000 | 3,000 | 0% | 98% |
| 2010 | 0 | 120,000 | 11,000 | 0% | 92% |
| 2015 | 5,900 | 105,000 | 19,100 | 5% | 81% |
| 2020 | 38,000 | 140,000 | 62,000 | 16% | 58% |
In 1985, China introduced a policy that partially refunded the taxes paid by domestic producers of rare earths, which lowered costs for Chinese mining companies. This, in addition to lax environmental regulations and cheap labor, made China’s rare earth industry increasingly competitive. In fact, its production increased 464% between 1985 and 1995.
Meanwhile, in California, the Mountain Pass Mine struggled to compete with Chinese producers while facing stringent environmental regulations. Therefore, the U.S. share of production declined from 34% in 1985 to 6% in 2000 before ceasing completely in 2002.
Putting Rare Earths in Different Baskets
In 2010, China slashed its rare earth export quotas by 37%, pushing rare earth prices to all-time highs. This, in turn, fueled an influx of capital into the rare earth mining industry and kickstarted mining in other countries.
Namely, Australia saw a 672% increase in rare earth production over the last decade, and more recently, Myanmar entered the mix—producing 30,000 metric tons of rare earths in 2020. Additionally, the Mountain Pass Mine is undergoing a revival following an investment from MP Materials in 2018. As a result, the U.S. share of production is growing again.
While the mining of rare earth metals is diversifying, 80% of refining still occurs in China. With the demand for rare earths projected to double by 2030, building both mining and refining capacity overseas may prove key in reducing reliance on China.
Technology Metals
Charted: Where the U.S. Gets Its Rare Earths From
China accounts for 70% of U.S. rare earth imports.
Charted: Where the U.S. Gets Its Rare Earths From
This was originally posted on our Voronoi app. Download the app for free on iOS or Android and discover incredible data-driven charts from a variety of trusted sources.
China dominates the global supply of rare earth elements (REEs)—a group of 17 minerals vital to everything from smartphones and electric vehicles to guided missiles and satellites.
Between 2020 and 2023, China accounted for 70% of U.S. rare earth imports, making it by far the country’s top supplier. Malaysia, Japan, and Estonia round out the top four.
| Country | Share of U.S. Imports |
|---|---|
| 🇨🇳 China | 70% |
| 🇲🇾 Malaysia | 13% |
| 🇯🇵 Japan | 6% |
| 🇪🇪 Estonia | 5% |
| 🌐 Others | 6% |
This chart breaks down America’s rare earth import sources. The data comes from the U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, as of January 2025, and Statista.
China’s Grip on Rare Earths
Despite their name, rare earths are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust. The challenge lies in finding them in high enough concentrations—and processing them economically and sustainably.
China produces around 90% of the world’s refined rare earths and is home to the largest capacity for separation and purification, giving it a chokehold on global supply chains.
Take yttrium, for example—used in radar systems, lasers, and television screens. Between 2020 and 2023, 93% of all yttrium compounds imported into the U.S. came from China.
Other critical rare earths affected by this supply concentration include:
- Samarium
- Gadolinium
- Terbium
- Dysprosium
- Lutetium
- Scandium
Many of these elements are essential in military applications, electric motors, and next-gen electronics. Companies like Lockheed Martin, Tesla, and Apple rely on these materials in their core products.
Tariffs, Tensions, and Export Controls
As part of its response to Donald Trump’s new tariffs on Chinese goods, China recently expanded export restrictions on seven rare earth elements, temporarily suspending overseas shipments of the minerals.
The U.S. currently has only one rare earth mine: the Mountain Pass mine in California. While it’s one of the richest rare earth deposits globally, nearly all of the ore extracted there is still shipped to China for final processing.
To diversify away from Chinese dependence, the U.S. has been actively seeking new supply partnerships. One potential opportunity is in Ukraine, which holds Europe’s largest recoverable rare earth reserves. Currently, the Trump administration is working to close a deal to secure access to these untapped resources.
Learn More on the Voronoi App 
If you enjoyed this graphic, be sure to check out this chart illustrating the GDP impact of Trump’s tariffs on China.
Misc
Charted: The End-of-Life Recycling Rates of Select Metals
End-of-life recycling rates measure the percentage of a material that is recovered at the end of its useful life, rather than being disposed of or incinerated.
Charted: The End-of-Life Recycling Rates of Select Metals
This was originally posted on our Voronoi app. Download the app for free on Apple or Android and discover incredible data-driven charts from a variety of trusted sources.
We visualize the end-of-life recycling rates (EOL-RR) of commonly used metals in the economy. Data is sourced from the International Energy Agency, last updated in 2021.
Tracking recycling rates helps manage resources better and make smarter policies, guiding efforts to cut down on waste.
Ranked: The End of Life Recycling Rates of Select Metals
Gold has an 86% recycling rate according to the latest available data. Per the Boston Consulting Group, one-third of total gold supply was met through recycling between 1995–2014.
| Metal | End-of-life recycling rate (2021) | 🔍 Used In |
|---|---|---|
| Gold | 86% | 💍 Jewelry / Electronics |
| Platinum/Palladium | 60% | 🔬 Optical fibers / Dental fillings |
| Nickel | 60% | 🔋 Batteries / Turbine blades |
| Silver | 50% | 💍 Jewelry / Mirrors |
| Copper | 46% | 🔌 Electrical wiring / Industrial equipment |
| Aluminum | 42% | ✈️ Aeroplane parts / Cans |
| Chromium | 34% | 🍽️ Stainless steel / Leather tanning |
| Zinc | 33% | 🔗 Galvanizing metal / Making rubber |
| Cobalt | 32% | 🔋 Batteries / Turbine engines |
| Lithium | 0.5% | 🔋 Batteries / Pacemakers |
| REEs | 0.2% | 📱 Mobile phones / Hard drives |
Note: Figures are rounded.
Several factors can influence metal recycling rates. According to this International Resource Panel report, metals that are used in large quantities (steel) or have a high value (gold) tend to have higher recycling rates.
However, for materials used in small quantities in complex products (rare earth elements in electronics), recycling becomes far more challenging.
Finally, a metal’s EOL-RR is strongly influenced by the least efficient link in the recycling chain, which is typically how it’s initially collected.
Learn More on the Voronoi App
If you enjoyed this post, check out Critical Materials: Where China, the EU, and the U.S. Overlap which shows how critical materials are classified within different jurisdictions.
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