Technology Metals
Aluminum: The Metal Extraordinaire
Aluminum: The Metal Extraordinaire
Aluminum (or aluminium) is the world’s most common metal by crustal abundance, making up 8.2% of mass. It’s more common than iron (5.6%) and a whopping 1200x more abundant than copper.
Despite its prevalence, aluminum was not isolated all the way until 1827. This is because it occurs only in compounds, and never in a free form. It also turns out that removing aluminum from these compounds is quite difficult, and an inexpensive process wasn’t discovered until 1886 by a college student in the United States. Charles Martin Hall was interested in the problem, and ran an electric current through a molten mixture of cryolite and aluminum oxide in a wood shed behind his house.
That dropped the price of aluminum drastically, and it became a household metal. Behind iron, aluminum is now the second most used metal in the world. Aluminum can now be found in everything: transportation (planes, cars, and more), buildings, machinery, consumer durables, packaging, and electrical uses.
Original graphic from: GutterMasters
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Misc
Mapped: U.S. Mineral Production, by State
This infographic breaks down $90.4 billion in non-fuel mineral production by state.

Mapped: U.S. Non-fuel Mineral Production, by State
Just how many minerals does the U.S. consume? In 2020, non-fuel mineral consumption worked out to around 19,000 pounds or 8.6 tonnes per person.
This includes metals like copper, iron ore, and zinc, along with construction sand, stone, cement, and other industrial minerals. With such high demand, changes in the production of these commodities often reflect how the overall economy is performing.
The above infographic maps U.S. non-fuel mineral production by state in 2021 using data from the United States Geological Survey (USGS).
The Most Valuable Minerals
As the U.S. economy restarted in 2021, American mines generated over $90 billion in non-fuel mineral production, a 12% increase from 2020.
Before diving into the breakdown by state, here’s a look at production value by mineral type:
Category | Production value | % of Total |
---|---|---|
Metals | $33.8B | 37.4% |
Construction aggregates | $29.2B | 32.3% |
Industrial minerals (excl. construction) | $27.4B | 30.3% |
Total | $90.4B | 100% |
Each of the categories accounted for roughly one-third of the total production value, with metals making up the largest share. Within metals, copper and gold collectively accounted for 66% of the total, followed by iron ore (13%) and zinc (7%).
The production of sand, gravel, and crushed stone—important inputs for construction—also made up a significant chunk of the value, along with other industrial minerals. Furthermore, crushed stone was the leading non-fuel mineral in 2021, with $19.3 billion in production value.
Which States Lead in Mineral Production?
Arizona, Nevada, Texas, California, and Minnesota—the top five states—accounted for nearly 40% of non-fuel mineral production value.
State | Value of Non-fuel Mineral Production | % of Total |
---|---|---|
Arizona | $10B | 11.0% |
Nevada | $9.4B | 10.3% |
Texas | $5.8B | 6.4% |
California | $5.3B | 5.8% |
Minnesota | $4.0B | 4.4% |
Alaska | $3.9B | 4.3% |
Utah | $3.8B | 4.1% |
Missouri | $3.3B | 3.7% |
Michigan | $3.0B | 3.3% |
Wyoming | $2.8B | 3.0% |
Florida | $2.4B | 2.7% |
Georgia | $2.0B | 2.3% |
Montana | $2.0B | 2.2% |
Pennsylvania | $2.0B | 2.2% |
Alabama | $1.9B | 2.1% |
Colorado | $1.6B | 1.8% |
New York | $1.6B | 1.7% |
Tennessee | $1.6B | 1.7% |
Virginia | $1.6B | 1.7% |
North Caroline | $1.5B | 1.6% |
Ohio | $1.4B | 1.5% |
New Mexico | $1.3B | 1.4% |
Kansas | $1.2B | 1.3% |
Indiana | $1.2B | 1.3% |
Arkansas | $1.0B | 1.1% |
Wisconsin | $1.0B | 1.1% |
Illinois | $1.0B | 1.1% |
Iowa | $0.96B | 1.1% |
South Carolina | $0.95B | 1.1% |
Oklahoma | $0.92B | 1.0% |
Washington | $0.73B | 0.8% |
Idaho | $0.72B | 0.8% |
Louisiana | $0.66B | 0.7% |
Oregon | $0.60B | 0.7% |
Kentucky | $0.59B | 0.6% |
South Dakota | $0.50B | 0.5% |
Maryland | $0.46B | 0.5% |
New Jersey | $0.40B | 0.4% |
West Virginia | $0.36B | 0.4% |
Nebraska | $0.22B | 0.2% |
Massachusetts | $0.21B | 0.2% |
Mississippi | $0.20B | 0.2% |
Connecticut | $0.18B | 0.2% |
Hawaii | $0.13B | 0.1% |
Maine | $0.13B | 0.1% |
Vermont | $0.11B | 0.1% |
New Hampshire | $0.095B | 0.1% |
Rhode Island | $0.066B | 0.07% |
North Dakota | $0.065B | 0.07% |
Delaware | $0.022B | 0.02% |
Undistributed | 4.0B | 4.5% |
Total | $90.4B | 100.0% |
Arizona and Nevada, the top two states, are the country’s biggest producers of copper and gold, respectively. Arizona also produced over $1 billion worth of construction sand and gravel in 2021, in addition to being the country’s leading producer of gemstones.
In third place was Texas, where mines produced nearly $6 billion worth of non-fuel minerals, of which 38% came from crushed stone. California, meanwhile, led in the production of construction sand and gravel, and was the country’s sole source of rare earth elements.
Minnesota also made the top five as the nation’s largest producer of iron ore. In fact, mines in Minnesota and Michigan shipped 98% of domestic usable iron ore products in 2021.
The Missing Critical Minerals
Although the U.S. is a major producer of non-fuel minerals, it still relies on imports for the supply of several minerals.
In 2021, the U.S. imported $5.3 billion worth of raw materials, in addition to $90 billion in net imports of processed mineral materials. Of the 50 minerals deemed critical to national security, the country was 100% net import reliant for 26, including graphite, manganese, and several rare earth metals.
To meet the rising demand for these minerals, U.S. President Biden announced major investments in domestic critical mineral production, including a $35 million grant to MP Materials for the processing of rare earths.
It remains to be seen whether these investments will pay off in building more resilient, end-to-end domestic critical mineral supply chains.
Technology Metals
The 50 Minerals Critical to U.S. Security
This graphic lists all minerals that are deemed critical to both the economic and national security of the United States.

The 50 Minerals Critical to U.S. Security
The U.S. aims to cut its greenhouse gas emissions in half by 2030 as part of its commitment to tackling climate change, but might be lacking the critical minerals needed to achieve its goals.
The American green economy will rely on renewable sources of energy like wind and solar, along with the electrification of transportation. However, local production of the raw materials necessary to produce these technologies, including solar panels, wind turbines, and electric vehicles, is lacking. Understandably, this has raised concerns in Washington.
In this graphic, based on data from the U.S. Geological Survey, we list all of the minerals that the government has deemed critical to both the economic and national security of the United States.
What are Critical Minerals?
A critical mineral is defined as a non-fuel material considered vital for the economic well-being of the world’s major and emerging economies, whose supply may be at risk. This can be due to geological scarcity, geopolitical issues, trade policy, or other factors.
In 2018, the U.S. Department of the Interior released a list of 35 critical minerals. The new list, released in February 2022, contains 15 more commodities.
Much of the increase in the new list is the result of splitting the rare earth elements and platinum group elements into individual entries rather than including them as “mineral groups.” In addition, the 2022 list of critical minerals adds nickel and zinc to the list while removing helium, potash, rhenium, and strontium.
Mineral | Example Uses | Net Import Reliance |
---|---|---|
Beryllium | Alloying agent in aerospace, defense industries | 11% |
Aluminum | Power lines, construction, electronics | 13% |
Zirconium | High-temparature ceramics production | 25% |
Palladium | Catalytic converters | 40% |
Germanium | Fiber optics, night vision applications | 50% |
Lithium | Rechargeable batteries | 50% |
Magnesium | Alloys, electronics | 50% |
Nickel | Stainless steel, rechargeable batteries | 50% |
Tungsten | Wear-resistant metals | 50% |
Barite | Hydrocarbon production | 75% |
Chromium | Stainless steel | 75% |
Tin | Coatings, alloys for steel | 75% |
Cobalt | Rechargeable batteries, superalloys | 76% |
Platinum | Catalytic converters | 79% |
Antimony | Lead-acid batteries, flame retardants | 81% |
Zinc | Metallurgy to produce galvanized steel | 83% |
Titanium | White pigment, metal alloys | 88% |
Bismuth | Medical, atomic research | 94% |
Tellurium | Solar cells, thermoelectric devices | 95% |
Vanadium | Alloying agent for iron and steel | 96% |
Arsenic | Semi-conductors, lumber preservatives, pesticides | 100% |
Cerium | Catalytic converters, ceramics, glass, metallurgy | 100% |
Cesium | Research, development | 100% |
Dysprosium | Data storage devices, lasers | 100% |
Erbium | Fiber optics, optical amplifiers, lasers | 100% |
Europium | Phosphors, nuclear control rods | 100% |
Fluorspar | Manufacture of aluminum, cement, steel, gasoline | 100% |
Gadolinium | Medical imaging, steelmaking | 100% |
Gallium | Integrated circuits, LEDs | 100% |
Graphite | Lubricants, batteries | 100% |
Holmium | Permanent magnets, nuclear control rods | 100% |
Indium | Liquid crystal display screens | 100% |
Lanthanum | Catalysts, ceramics, glass, polishing compounds | 100% |
Lutetium | Scintillators for medical imaging, cancer therapies | 100% |
Manganese | Steelmaking, batteries | 100% |
Neodymium | Rubber catalysts, medical, industrial lasers | 100% |
Niobium | Steel, superalloys | 100% |
Praseodymium | Permanent magnets, batteries, aerospace alloys | 100% |
Rubidium | Research, development in electronics | 100% |
Samarium | Cancer treatment, absorber in nuclear reactors | 100% |
Scandium | Alloys, ceramics, fuel cells | 100% |
Tantalum | Electronic components, superalloys | 100% |
Terbium | Permanent magnets, fiber optics, lasers | 100% |
Thulium | Metal alloys, lasers | 100% |
Ytterbium | Catalysts, scintillometers, lasers, metallurgy | 100% |
Yttrium | Ceramic, catalysts, lasers, metallurgy, phosphors | 100% |
Iridium | Coating of anodes for electrochemical processes | No data available |
Rhodium | Catalytic converters, electrical components | No data available |
Ruthenium | Electrical contacts, chip resistors in computers | No data available |
Hafnium | Nuclear control rods, alloys | Net exporter |
The challenge for the U.S. is that the local production of these raw materials is extremely limited.
For instance, in 2021 there was only one operating nickel mine in the country, the Eagle mine in Michigan. The facility ships its concentrates abroad for refining and is scheduled to close in 2025. Likewise, the country only hosted one lithium mine, the Silver Peak Mine in Nevada.
At the same time, most of the country’s supply of critical minerals depends on countries that have historically competed with America.
China’s Dominance in Minerals
Perhaps unsurprisingly, China is the single largest supply source of mineral commodities for the United States.
Cesium, a critical metal used in a wide range of manufacturing, is one example. There are only three pegmatite mines in the world that can produce cesium, and all were controlled by Chinese companies in 2021.
Furthermore, China refines nearly 90% of the world’s rare earths. Despite the name, these elements are abundant on the Earth’s crust and make up the majority of listed critical minerals. They are essential for a variety of products like EVs, advanced ceramics, computers, smartphones, wind turbines, monitors, and fiber optics.
After China, the next largest source of mineral commodities to the United States has been Canada, which provided the United States with 16 different elements in 2021.
The Rising Demand for Critical Minerals
As the world’s clean energy transitions gather pace, demand for critical minerals is expected to grow quickly.
According to the International Energy Association, the rise of low-carbon power generation is projected to triple mineral demand from this sector by 2040.
The shift to a sustainable economy is important, and consequently, securing the critical minerals necessary for it is just as vital.
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